PERSIAN STEEL - A MIRROR OF LIFE IN IRAN
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The Persian Steel Industry
The steel manufacturing concerns of Iran were not always close to the centres for the production of the metal itself. At times, these centres themselves were a long way from the natural deposits of iron. The ingots were objects of a sizeable trade, and could have been imported from, say, India. The transformation of steel into objects and tools was controlled by guilds, with each town having its own speciality. From the 17th century onwards, Isfahan had the most complete range of iron and steel trade, as shown in the listing of guilds transmitted by European travellers to Iran. These records enumerate a wide range of products being produced in Isfahan. Working with steel requires a variety of skills, thus leading to a hierarchy of tasks - from the shaping and fashioning, to the conception and execution of embellishments. This activity occurred primarily in family businesses where each member had his particular expertise. Thanks to the signatures found on numerous pieces, we know today that successive generations were active in production at these family enterprises. These businesses did also resort to the employment of apprentices from outside the family unit. The apprentices could subsequently accede to the status of khalifa or assistant to the master, and later even to that of ustad or master. During the Safavid and the Qajar periods, accession to the rank of ustad had to be approved by the masters of the guild to whom a ‘masterpiece’ by the artisan was presented. The newly elected member would then receive a shawl or a belt during a ceremony.

Steel and the Princely Patronage
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. The grade of the carbon varies from 0.2 to 3% and is obtained through carbonised wood or plant. The mixture is placed in airtight crucibles and for a few hours the temperature is raised to and maintained at a point where fusion occurs. The compound is then left to cool down gradually and is later recovered in the form and size of small “loaves”, measuring approximately 10cm in diameter by 2 cm in thickness. Next, the alloy is subjected to another long firing process, at temperatures of between 800° and 1000°, which prepares it for further steps of ironwork. With its superior qualities of hardness and flexibility relative to iron, from the start steel lent itself to the production of swords and lances. As early as the 1st millennium B.C., princely patronage unquestionably contributed to the expansion of the steel industry in association with the establishment of political and military centres. The 11th century epical poems of Shahnmeh or ‘Book of the Kings’, that retrace the accomplishments of the sovereigns ruling over ancient Iran, depict Hushang as the inventor of the process of extraction of iron from ore through melting, and portray Jamshid as the first blacksmith who moulds metal into arms and armours. In a letter addressed to the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu’tasim (r. 833-842 AD) in Baghdad, the Arab scholar, al-Kindi, discusses different types of metal; he mentions India as the supplier of steel for equipping the caliph’s army with swords. Recent excavations have revealed remnants of Persian steel production in the 10th and 11th centuries. From the 16th century, the Safavid dynasty regarded this alloy significant and encouraged the development of the steel industry. Shah Abbas I (r. 1588-1629) did not consider it beneath him to work personally with steel in the workshops of his capital city of Isfahan. In that he was the heir to an ancient tradition which made this precious metal the exclusive privilege of Gods, kings and heroes. 

Steel and Religious Practices
The establishment of the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century gives pre-eminence to the production of steel, often employed in a religious context. The Safavid Kings or Shahs were devout Muslims, followers of the Shi’ite sect of Islam, believing ‘Ali and his descendants to be the only legitimate successors to the Prophet Mohammad. The cult of martyrs and saints, peculiar to Shi’ism, attributes great significance to pilgrimage. The mosque and sanctuary entrances are faced with plaques of steel inscribed with verses of the Koran and the names of the twelve Imams. A custom dictates that pilgrims attach padlocks to the grilles surrounding the tombs of the venerated saints as a symbol of the tie that bonds them to the saints. The steel plaques adorned with religious phrases immortalize the prayers of the pilgrims. Accessories, ‘alams among others, which are used during religious celebrations and processions and particularly during the ta’ziyeh - a theatrical portrayal of the martyrdom of Hussain, the son of ‘Ali - have made it possible for the steel craft industry to survive up until today. Religious devotion drives the production of amulets, armlets or bazubands and miniature Koran boxes in steel with a variety of decoration techniques. Thus, the metal itself is a medium of virtue.

Steel in Daily Life
It is not possible to define with certainty the time when steel, replacing iron and brass, came to be used for purposes other than producing armaments. Creating luxury objects for the exclusive use of a privileged group preceded the widespread production of ordinary objects of daily life. Doors of houses began to be adorned with decorative plaques of openwork, placed where door knockers and knobs are usually positioned. Steel began to be used in different door closing mechanisms such as hinges, locks and padlocks. Furniture, chests in particular, were enhanced with chiselled, engraved and at times gold-plated steel ornaments. Finally, steel was used in tableware, kitchen utensils and household items, grooming and clothing accessories. Outside the domestic sphere, steel utensils were used in certain social practices associated with drinking coffee and smoking tobacco. Steel was not just used by urban populations. Nomads used steel not only for their horse harnesses and their domestic objects, but also for the tools they used to set up tents, such as pegs, which may have been decorated. In the 19th century, Persian artisans were subjected to competition from European industrial productions which were widely distributed in the Near and the Middle-East. These European exports were mainly in the domain of cutlery, hardware and arms manufacture. The cost of raw materials and the difficulties of transportation over long distances made the widespread commercialisation of Iranian products challenging. In contrast, at the local level workshops continued to flourish, perpetuating artisanal know-how with the support of the rulers of the Qajar dynasty (r. 1779-1924). Qajar rulers attempted to revive the Persian steel industry by despatching Iranian artisans to England in order for them to familiarize themselves with the latest technical developments.